I have been asked twice this week what version of MySQL I would choose for a new project.
As with most questions in life the answer is: It Depends?

In general I would now recommend for a new project to select 5.1, and he is why.

1. If it’s a new project and your not managing existing applications with older versions then 5.1 is slated for General Availability (GA) at some imminent time. Having been at Release Candidate (RC) for quite some time (almost 1 year), many people, both internally and in the community are just waiting for Sun/MySQL to get this version out.
2. MySQL 5.0 is in maintenance mode, it’s now 3 years old. MySQL is placing (I’m assuming) resourcing energies to current and future releases.
3. If your looking at releasing a product in the next 3 months for example, you do not want to consider the testing and deployment of a new version (e.g. 5.1) in the next 6-9 months.
4. Unless your comparing specific performance between 5.1 and 5.0 in your edge cases, for a new project start with 5.1 you should be testing and confirming performance and reliability here. The worse case is you can test in 5.0 of any specific problem.
5. 5.1 gives you new features of course, partitioning may be of benefit but don’t assume it’s going to be a great improvement unless you applications SQL naturally tended to the MySQL partitioning strengths.
6. The single biggest benefit is the Pluggable Storage Engine Architecture. This can give you some benefits, and in the case of transaction storage engines that are production ready, Innodb now has a pluggable version, much improved on the MySQL supplied version. There are a long list of other engines under development with relative strengths and weakness, however be wary of versions that require customized builds of MySQL.

There are some concerns where I don’t have answers? For example, if you have MySQL Support , is 5.1 supported? I know a common answer to problems in pre 5.0 versions is, have you tried upgrading to 5.1

Why is not released? This is good question, the answer is obviously a level of quality, however it is generally discussed that 5.1 is of better quality in existing features then 5.0. It is 5.1 specific features you need to be careful of. It’s important that you do read carefully the 5.1 Release Notes to see where bug fixes or compatibility changes are still occuring.

As with any choice in the Open Source world, some level of risk assessment is necessary. If you have good metrics and measurement in place for your system, and you adequately test your software, there is no reason not to now consider 5.1 as a viable alternative for new development.

As I post this I note, I see the yet unreleased 5.1.28 list of bugs still shows issues of concern.

I came across this error recently when trying to modify the data type of a column.

ERROR 1025 (HY000): Error on rename of './sakila/#sql-1d91_5' to './sakila/inventory' (errno: 150)

Not the first time, and not the last time. A common problem with InnoDB tables, is the lack of information, you need to dig deeper with the following command (and appropriate security a well organized security profile will NOT have).

mysql> SHOW ENGINE INNODB STATUS;

...

------------------------
LATEST FOREIGN KEY ERROR
------------------------
080717 20:00:28 Error in foreign key constraint of table sakila/inventory:
there is no index in the table which would contain
the columns as the first columns, or the data types in the
table do not match the ones in the referenced table
or one of the ON ... SET NULL columns is declared NOT NULL. Constraint:
,
  CONSTRAINT "fk_inventory_film" FOREIGN KEY ("film_id") REFERENCES "film" ("film_id") ON UPDATE CASCADE

...

You also need to dig though the output of the command to find this, on a larger system this can be quite a lot of information just to find the details of the error. (It would be nice if there was an easier way.)

The result of this error is the columns in a foreign key relationship need to be of the same data type. This is actually a good thing, and MySQL generally operates much better in joins when the join columns are consistent.

On the assumption that you use surrogate primary keys for tables, this is a candidate for a naming standard for primary keys should be the primary key name is unique column name within your schema.

For example, if you call all your primary key’s ‘id’, your foreign key’s are normally ‘table_id’. While this is a common approach that I promoted myself for many years, it’s easy to read and consistent, actually naming every primary key uniquely provides two great benefits.

First, you can easily identify relationships in your entire schema without even knowing about the schema in detail. Second, you can leverage the benefit of the INFORMATION_SCHEMA to in the case of this post, confirm the data types are consistent for all matching columns, even when Referential Integrity is not used.

So, instead of using ‘id’, use ‘actor_id’, ‘film_id’, ‘user_id’ etc. For any self join keys, I normally prefix with parent, so ‘parent_user_id’ for example if you have a hierarchy within a table.

I have seen on many engagements the column data type is defined as INT(1).

People have the misconception that this numeric integer data type is of the length of one digit, or one byte. (One digit is 0-9 an one byte is 0-255)

This is incorrect.

Integer

For integer numeric data types in MySQL, that is TINYINT, SMALLINT, MEDIUMINT, INT, BIGINT the (n) has no bearing on the size of data stored within the specific data type. The (n) is simply for display formatting.

In the MySQL Manual 10.2. Numeric Types you read This optional display width is used to display integer values having a width less than the width specified for the column by left-padding them with spaces. The display width does not constrain the range of values that can be stored in the column, nor the number of digits that are displayed for values having a width exceeding that specified for the column.

The following example shows the (n) in this case 3 has no effect on the size of data stored.

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS numeric_int;
CREATE TABLE numeric_int(i INT(3) NOT NULL);
INSERT INTO numeric_int VALUES (1),(22),(333),(444),(55555);
SELECT * FROM numeric_intG
i: 1
i: 22
i: 333
i: 444
i: 55555

Floating Point

When it comes to floating point precision of FLOAT and DOUBLE, the syntax of (m,n) has a different inteperation. The manual states A precision from 0 to 23 results in a four-byte single-precision FLOAT column. A precision from 24 to 53 results in an eight-byte double-precision DOUBLE column.
I will discuss this some more in a different post with some interesting findings.

And MySQL allows a non-standard syntax: FLOAT(M,D) or REAL(M,D) or DOUBLE PRECISION(M,D). Here, “(M,D)” means than values can be stored with up to M digits in total, of which D digits may be after the decimal point. For example, a column defined as FLOAT(7,4) will look like -999.9999 when displayed. MySQL performs rounding when storing values, so if you insert 999.00009 into a FLOAT(7,4) column, the approximate result is 999.0001.

So in the case of FLOAT,DOUBLE the (n) does both affect storage and presentation where it rounds the number as confirmed by the following test. Look a the last 2 rows for the rounding confirmation.

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS numeric_float;
CREATE TABLE numeric_float(f1 FLOAT(10,5)  NOT NULL);
INSERT INTO numeric_float values (1),(2.0),(3.12345),(4.123451),(5.123456);
Query OK, 5 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Records: 5  Duplicates: 0  Warnings: 0
SELECT * FROM numeric_floatG
f1: 1.00000
f1: 2.00000
f1: 3.12345
f1: 4.12345
f1: 5.12346
5 rows in set (0.01 sec)

Fixed Precision

The DECIMAL data type (NUMBER is a synonym) stores numbers to a fixed number of precision. From the manual again When declaring a DECIMAL or NUMERIC column, the precision and scale can be (and usually is) specified; for example: salary DECIMAL(5,2)
In this example, 5 is the precision and 2 is the scale. The precision represents the number of significant digits that are stored for values, and the scale represents the number of digits that can be stored following the decimal point. If the scale is 0, DECIMAL and NUMERIC values contain no decimal point or fractional part.

So in our test:

DROP TABLE IF EXISTS numeric_decimal;
CREATE TABLE numeric_decimal(f1 DECIMAL(10,5)  NOT NULL);
INSERT INTO numeric_decimal values (1),(2.0),(3.12345),(4.123451),(5.123456);
Query OK, 5 rows affected, 2 warnings (0.00 sec)
SELECT * FROM numeric_decimalG
f1: 1.00000
f1: 2.00000
f1: 3.12345
f1: 4.12345
f1: 5.12346

What is also interesting is that with a FLOAT, the rounding of a number greater then (n), produces no warnings, yet when using DECIMAL you will see warnings. These are:

INSERT INTO numeric_decimal values (1),(2.0),(3.12345),(4.123451),(5.123456);
Query OK, 5 rows affected, 2 warnings (0.00 sec)
Records: 5  Duplicates: 0  Warnings: 2

mysql> show warnings;
+-------+------+-----------------------------------------+
| Level | Code | Message                                 |
+-------+------+-----------------------------------------+
| Note  | 1265 | Data truncated for column 'f1' at row 4 |
| Note  | 1265 | Data truncated for column 'f1' at row 5 |
+-------+------+-----------------------------------------+
2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

What is also interesting is that the manual states the following When such a column is assigned a value with more digits following the decimal point than are allowed by the specified scale, the value is converted to that scale. (The precise behavior is operating system-specific, but generally the effect is truncation to the allowable number of digits.)

The number is generally truncated, buy differs per OS. In the case on Mac O/S and Linux it is rounded. The two test environments in this case where:

mysql> show variables like '%version%';
+-------------------------+------------------------------+
| Variable_name           | Value                        |
+-------------------------+------------------------------+
| protocol_version        | 10                           |
| version                 | 5.1.23-rc                    |
| version_comment         | MySQL Community Server (GPL) |
| version_compile_machine | i686                         |
| version_compile_os      | apple-darwin9.0.0b5          |
+-------------------------+------------------------------+
5 rows in set (0.01 sec)

mysql> show variables like '%version%';
+-------------------------+------------------------------+
| Variable_name           | Value                        |
+-------------------------+------------------------------+
| protocol_version        | 10                           |
| version                 | 5.1.24-rc                    |
| version_comment         | MySQL Community Server (GPL) |
| version_compile_machine | i686                         |
| version_compile_os      | redhat-linux-gnu             |
+-------------------------+------------------------------+
5 rows in set (0.41 sec)

Conclusion

So just to conclude, (n) for Integer types is for display formatting only, (m,n) for floating point will round the number at n places, while in fixed point (m,n) n will round or truncate the number.

---

About the Author

Ronald Bradford provides Consulting and Advisory Services in Data Architecture, Performance and Scalability for MySQL Solutions. An IT industry professional for two decades with extensive database experience in MySQL, Oracle and Ingres his expertise covers data architecture, software development, migration, performance analysis and production system implementations. His knowledge from 10 years of consulting across many industry sectors, technologies and countries has provided unique insight into being able to provide solutions to problems. For more information Contact Ronald.

References

• 10.2. Numeric Types
• Top 20 Design Tips for Data Architects – Apr 2008

Recently I was asked to provide guidelines for testing fail over of a MySQL configuration that was provided by a hosting provider.

The first observation was the client didn’t have any technical details from the hosting provider of what the moving parts were, and also didn’t have any confirmation other then I think a verbal confirmation that it had been testing.

The first rule in using hosting, never assume. Too many times I’ve seen details from a client stating for example H/W configuration, only to audit and find out otherwise. RAID is a big one, and is generally far more complex to determine. Even for companies with internal systems I’ve seen the most simple question go unanswered. Q: How do you know your RAID is fully operational? A: Somebody will tell us? It’s really amazing to investigate on site with the client to find that RAID system is running in a degraded mode due to a disk failure and nobody knew.

It took some more digging to realize the configuration in question was with Red Hat Cluster Suite. A word of warning for any clients that use this, DO NOT USE MyISAM. I’ll leave it to the readers to ask me why.

Here is a short list I provided as the minimum requirements I’d test just to ensure the configuration was operational.

Verifying a working Red Hat Cluster Suite MySQL Environment

The MySQL Environment

The database environment consists of two MySQL database servers, configured in an active/passive mode using a shared disk storage via SAN.
For the purposes of the following procedures the active server will be known as the ‘primary’ server, and the passive server will be the ‘secondary server’.
The two physical servers for the purposes of these tests will be defined as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’, with specific H/W that does not change during these tests.

Normal Operations

Expected Configuration under normal operations.

Primary Server

• server is pingable
• server accepts SSH Connection
• MySQL service is started
• has /data appropriately mounted
• has assigned VIP address
• MySQL configuration file and settings are correct

Secondary Server

• server is pingable
• server accepts SSH Connection
• MySQL service IS NOT started
• DOES NOT have /data mounted
• DOES NOT has assigned VIP address
• MySQL configuration file is not available

1. Reboot servers ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’.

Test Status:

• alpha server is the designated primary server
• alpha and beta servers are operational

Action:
1.1 Restart alpha server (init 6)
1.2 Restart beta server (init 6)

Checklist:
1.3 Alpha server matches primary server configuration
1.4 Beta server matches secondary server configuration

2. Controlled fail over from ‘alpha’ to ‘beta’

Test Status:

• alpha server is the designated primary server
• alpha and beta servers are operational

Action:
2.1 Alpha server – Instigate Cluster failover (clusvcadm -r mysql-svc)

Checklist:
2.2 Beta server matches primary server configuration
2.3 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration

3. Controlled failover from ‘beta’ to ‘alpha’

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha and beta servers are operational

Action:
3.1 beta server – Instigate Cluster failover (clusvcadm -r mysql-svc)

Checklist:
3.2 Alpha server matches primary server configuration
3.3 Beta server matches secondary server configuration

Exception Operations

4. Loss of connectivity to primary server

Test Status:

• alpha server is the designated primary server
• beta server is online

Action:
4.1 Stop networking services on ‘alpha’ (ifdown bond0)

Checklist:
4.2 Monitoring detects and reports connectively loss
4.3 Automated failover occurs
4.4 Beta server matches primary server configuration
4.5 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration

5. Restore connectivity to secondary server

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha server is online, but not accessible via private IP

Action:
4.1 Start networking services on ‘alpha’ (ifup bond0)

Checklist:
5.2 Monitoring detects and reports connectively restored
5.3 No failback occurs
5.4 Beta server matches primary server configuration
5.5 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration

6. Loss of connectivity to secondary server

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha server is online

Action:
6.1 Stop networking services on ‘alpha’ (ifdown bond0)

Checklist:
6.2 Monitoring detects and reports connectively lost
6.3 No failback occurs
6.4 Beta server matches primary server configuration
6.5 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration

7. Restore connectivity to secondary server

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha server is online, but not accessible via private IP

Action:
7.1 Start networking services on ‘alpha’ (ifup bond0)

Checklist:
7.2 Monitoring detects and reports connectively restored
7.3 No failback occurs
7.4 Beta server matches primary server configuration
7.5 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration

8. Power down secondary server

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha server is online

Action:
8.1 Power down alpha (init 0) NOTE: Need remote boot capabilities

Checklist:
8.2 Monitoring detects and reports connectively lost
8.3 Beta server matches primary server configuration
8.4 Additional paging for extended down time for ‘degraded support for failover’

9. Loss of connectivity to primary server

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha server is offline

Action:
9.1 Power down beta (init 0) NOTE: Need remote boot capabilities

Checklist:
9.2 Monitoring detects and reports connectively lost
9.3 Site database connectively completely unavailable
9.4 Additional paging for loss of HA solution

10. power restored to secondary server
Test Status:

• alpha server is offline
• beta server is offline

Action:
10.1 Power on alpha

Checklist:
10.2 Monitoring detects and reports server up
10.3 Alpha server assumes primary role (previously it was beta)
10.4 Alpha server matching primary server configuration
10.5 Addition paging for degraded HA

11. power restored to secondary server

Test Status:

• alpha server is primary server
• beta server is offline

Action:
11.1 Power on beta

Checklist:
11.2 Monitoring detects and reports server up
11.3 Alpha server matching primary server configuration
11.4 Beta server matching secondary server configuration

Database Operations

12. MySQL services on primary server go offline

Test Status:

• alpha server is the designated primary server
• beta server is online

Action:
12.1 Stop mysql services on ‘alpha’ (/etc/init.d/mysqld stop)

Checklist:
12.2 Monitoring detects and reports database loss (while connectivity is still available)
12.3 Automated failover occurs
12.4 Beta server matches primary server configuration
12.5 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration

13. MySQL services on secondary server go offline

Test Status:

• beta server is the designated primary server
• alpha server is online

Action:
13.1 stop mysql services on ‘beta’ (/etc/init.d/mysqld stop)

Checklist:
13.2 Monitoring detects and reports database loss (while connectivity is still available)
13.3 Automated failover occurs
13.4 Alpha server matches primary server configuration
13.5 beta server matches secondary server configuration

14. Load Testing during failure

Test Status:

• alpha server is the designated primary server
• beta server is online

Action:
14.1 Agressive load testing against database server
14.2 MySQL killed without prejudice (killall -9 mysqld_safe mysql)

Checklist:
14.3 Monitoring detects and reports mysql service loss
14.4 Automated failover occurs
14.5 Beta server matches primary server configuration
14.6 Alpha server matches secondary server configuration
14.7 Beta mysql logs shows a forced MySQL Recovery in logs

15. Forced Recovery

Test Status:

• alpha server is the designated primary server
• beta server is online

Action:
15.1 Manual full database backup is done (in case recovery does not work). Hosting Provider not told of this.
15.2 Dummy new table/schema is created (used as verification point)
15.3 Database on alpha primary server is dropped
15.4 Hosting Provider is notified stating a full database recovery including Point In time to just before drop (no time given, only command that was run)

Checklist:
15.5 Site is marked as unavailable
15.6 Hosting Provider restore data from backup and recover to point in time
15.7 Confirmation that new table/schema is restored, and full schema is available
15.8 Site is made available
15.9 Record of time for full disaster is recorded

Conclusion

This is not an exhaustive test, in fact it is just a documented approach for consideration to show a client what the minimum testing should be. As no dry run actually occurred, there may be inaccuracies and additions necessary to this document when first executed. I would need access to an appropriate configuration in order to perform a level of testing to complete this document.

---

About the Author

Ronald Bradford provides Consulting and Advisory Services in Data Architecture, Performance and Scalability for MySQL Solutions. An IT industry professional for two decades with extensive database experience in MySQL, Oracle and Ingres his expertise covers data architecture, software development, migration, performance analysis and production system implementations. His knowledge from 10 years of consulting across many industry sectors, technologies and countries has provided unique insight into being able to provide solutions to problems. For more information Contact Ronald.

The answer is yes.

In this face off we have two numeric MySQL data types, both Integer. In fact MySQL has 9 different numeric data types for integer, fixed precision and floating point numbers, however we are just going to focus on two, BIGINT and INT. This design consideration is part of my recent presentation Top 20 Design Tips for Data Architects.

What is the difference?
We turn to the MySQL Reference Manual first, in 10.1.1. Overview of Numeric Types we see the following.

INT[(M)] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]

A normal-size integer. The signed range is -2147483648 to 2147483647. The unsigned range is 0 to 4294967295.

BIGINT[(M)] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]

A large integer. The signed range is -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807. The unsigned range is 0 to 18446744073709551615.

Ok, well an INT can store a value to 2.1 Billion, and an a BIGINT can store a value to some larger number to 20 digits. That MySQL search didn’t help much with details, we have to dig deeper to find 10.2. Numeric Types in which we find that INT is a 4 byte integer, and a BIGINT is an 8 byte integer.

So what’s the big deal?

Quite a lot actually. Using INT rather then BIGINT can make a significant reduction in disk space. Just this one change alone can save you 10%-20% (depends on your particular situation). More significantly, when used as a primary key, and for foreign keys and indexes, reducing your index size could be 50%, and this will improve performance when these indexes are used.

My approach is this. Let’s just focus on primary keys and foreign keys to begin with. Are you going to store more then 2.1 Billion rows in your table? The answer should be no? Should you say yes, then you do have grand plans, but you are also failing to consider the ramifications of handling larger data sets (a topic for later discussion).

There are exceptions to this rule, if you do a huge number of inserts and deletes, then while you may not have 2.1 Billion rows, you may have done 2.1 Billion inserts. Again better design practices should be considered in this case.

The Test

As with everything, we need some evidence to stake the claim. Using the Sakila sample database.

We start with a simple intersection table, that has a high number of numeric only columns. This will show the best case situation.

We will create two tables, one with all BIGINT columns, and one with all INT columns and then compare the size. These tables are only small, but they show the proportion of savings of disk space.

CREATE TABLE inventory_bigint LIKE inventory;
ALTER TABLE inventory_bigint
  MODIFY inventory_id  BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  MODIFY film_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
  MODIFY store_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;
INSERT INTO inventory_bigint SELECT * from inventory;
CREATE TABLE inventory_int LIKE inventory;
ALTER TABLE inventory_int
  MODIFY inventory_id  INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
  MODIFY film_id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
  MODIFY store_id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;
INSERT INTO inventory_int SELECT * from inventory;

select table_name,engine,row_format, table_rows, avg_row_length,
        (data_length+index_length)/1024/1024 as total_mb,
         (data_length)/1024/1024 as data_mb,
         (index_length)/1024/1024 as index_mb
from information_schema.tables
where table_schema='sakila'
and   table_name LIKE 'inventory%'
order by 6 desc;
+------------------+--------+------------+------------+----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| table_name       | engine | row_format | table_rows | avg_row_length | total_mb    | data_mb     | index_mb    |
+------------------+--------+------------+------------+----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| inventory_bigint | InnoDB | Compact    |     293655 |             51 | 43.60937500 | 14.51562500 | 29.09375000 |
| inventory_int    | InnoDB | Compact    |     293715 |             37 | 29.54687500 | 10.51562500 | 19.03125000 |
| inventory        | InnoDB | Compact    |     293707 |             33 | 22.54687500 |  9.51562500 | 13.03125000 |
+------------------+--------+------------+------------+----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
3 rows in set (0.15 sec)

In this example, the data portion decreased from 14MB to 10MB or 28%, and the index portion from 29M to 19M or 34%.

CREATE TABLE customer_bigint LIKE customer;
ALTER TABLE customer_bigint
     MODIFY customer_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
     MODIFY store_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
     MODIFY address_id BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
     MODIFY active BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;

CREATE TABLE customer_int LIKE customer;
ALTER TABLE customer_int
     MODIFY customer_id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
     MODIFY store_id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
     MODIFY address_id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
     MODIFY active INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL;

select table_name,engine,row_format, table_rows, avg_row_length,
        (data_length+index_length)/1024/1024 as total_mb,
         (data_length)/1024/1024 as data_mb,
         (index_length)/1024/1024 as index_mb
from information_schema.tables
where table_schema='sakila'
and   table_name LIKE 'customer%'
order by 6 desc;

+-----------------+--------+------------+------------+----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| table_name      | engine | row_format | table_rows | avg_row_length | total_mb    | data_mb     | index_mb    |
+-----------------+--------+------------+------------+----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| customer_bigint | InnoDB | Compact    |     154148 |            139 | 37.09375000 | 20.54687500 | 16.54687500 |
| customer_int    | InnoDB | Compact    |     151254 |            121 | 30.06250000 | 17.51562500 | 12.54687500 |
| customer        | InnoDB | Compact    |      37684 |            125 |  7.81250000 |  4.51562500 |  3.29687500 |
| customer_list   | NULL   | NULL       |       NULL |           NULL |        NULL |        NULL |        NULL |
+-----------------+--------+------------+------------+----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
4 rows in set (0.22 sec)

In this example, the data portion decreased from 20MB to 17MB or 15%, and the index portion from 16M to 12M or 25%.

NOTE: The sample data set was increased for this example.

Conclusion

Even with these simple tables and small data sets it’s clear that INT is a saving of diskspace over BIGINT. In many clients I’ve seen huge savings in multi TB databases, just with a small number of schema optimizations. If this saving alone for a more optimized database design was only 10%, it is an easy 10% that will reflect a direct improvement in performance.

---

About the Author

Ronald Bradford provides Consulting and Advisory Services in Data Architecture, Performance and Scalability for MySQL Solutions. An IT industry professional for two decades with extensive database experience in MySQL, Oracle and Ingres his expertise covers data architecture, software development, migration, performance analysis and production system implementations. His knowledge from 10 years of consulting across many industry sectors, technologies and countries has provided unique insight into being able to provide solutions to problems. For more information Contact Ronald.

References

• 10.2. Numeric Types
• Sakila sample database
• Top 20 Design Tips for Data Architects – Apr 2008